7th Grade Science Checklist: What Your Child Should Know

Cells Under the Microscope

Understand that all living organisms are made of cells and use a light microscope to observe, interpret, and record cell structure

• States that all living things are made of cells
• Prepares or examines a slide of cells (e.g. onion skin, cheek cells) under a microscope
• Draws and labels a diagram of cells observed

Heart Structure & Double Circulation

Describe the structure of the heart (four chambers, valves, coronary arteries) and explain how it pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body in a double circulatory system

• Labels a diagram of the heart showing atria, ventricles, valves, aorta, vena cava, and pulmonary vessels
• Traces the route of blood through the double circulatory system
• Explains the role of valves in preventing backflow

Parts of Plant and Animal Cells

Describe the functions of the main components of plant and animal cells: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, mitochondria, ribosomes, and chloroplasts

• Names the main organelles in plant and animal cells
• Explains the function of each organelle in their own words
• Links organelle function to the needs of the whole cell (e.g. mitochondria produce energy for cell activities)

Photosynthesis

Explain photosynthesis as the process by which plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, and describe how mineral nutrients are absorbed through roots

• Writes and explains the word equation for photosynthesis
• Identifies the raw materials needed and the products made
• Explains the role of chlorophyll in capturing light energy

Plant Cells vs Animal Cells

Compare plant and animal cells, identifying shared features and structures unique to plant cells (cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts)

• Lists features common to plant and animal cells
• Identifies structures found only in plant cells and explains why
• Draws and annotates labelled diagrams of both cell types showing similarities and differences

Cells to Organ Systems

Describe the hierarchical organisation of multicellular organisms: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

• Places cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems in the correct order of organisation
• Gives a specific example of each level (e.g. muscle cell → muscle tissue → heart → circulatory system → human)
• Explains why specialised cells are needed in a multicellular organism

Digestion & Enzymes

Describe the organs of the human digestive system and how food is physically and chemically digested, including the role of enzymes as biological catalysts

• Traces the journey of food from mouth to large intestine, naming each organ and its role
• Explains what enzymes do and names where they are produced (salivary glands, stomach, small intestine)
• Distinguishes physical digestion (chewing, churning) from chemical digestion

Gut Bacteria & Digestion

Explain the role of gut microbiome bacteria in digestion, including breaking down dietary fibre and contributing to a healthy gut environment

• Explains that many gut bacteria are beneficial, not harmful
• Describes what gut bacteria do that human digestive enzymes cannot (e.g. break down fibre)
• Explains what might happen if the gut microbiome is disrupted

Gas Exchange & Breathing

Describe the structure of the human gas exchange system (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli) and explain how the mechanism of breathing — using pressure changes from rib and diaphragm movement — moves air in and out of the lungs

• Labels a diagram of the lungs showing trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
• Explains that breathing in lowers air pressure in the chest and air rushes in
• Describes how the structure of alveoli (large surface area, thin walls, good blood supply) aids gas exchange

Aerobic Respiration

Explain aerobic respiration as the process by which organisms release energy from glucose using oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water; write and interpret the word equation: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

• Writes and explains the word equation for aerobic respiration
• Explains where in the cell aerobic respiration takes place (mitochondria)
• Links aerobic respiration to why breathing rate and heart rate increase during exercise

How Diffusion Works

Explain diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration, and describe its role in moving materials (oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose) in and between cells

• Defines diffusion using particle theory
• Explains the direction of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the alveoli
• Explains how cells get glucose from the blood using diffusion

Joints, Tendons & Ligaments

Explain biomechanics — the interaction between skeleton and muscles at joints, including the roles of tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (attach bone to bone)

• Distinguishes between tendons and ligaments and gives the function of each
• Describes how a synovial joint works (e.g. the knee or elbow)
• Explains how force is transmitted from muscle through tendon to bone to produce movement

Muscles Work in Pairs

Explain that muscles work in antagonistic pairs — one contracts while the other relaxes — to produce movement, using the bicep and tricep as a key example

• Explains why muscles can only pull, not push
• Describes what happens to the bicep and tricep when the arm is bent and straightened
• Gives another example of an antagonistic muscle pair

Nutrients in a Healthy Diet

Identify the seven components of a healthy diet — carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, and water — and explain the role of each in the body

• Names all seven dietary components and a food source for each
• Explains what each nutrient does in the body (e.g. proteins for growth and repair)
• Identifies which nutrients provide energy and which do not

The Human Skeleton

Describe the structure and four main functions of the human skeleton: support, protection, movement, and production of blood cells in bone marrow

• Lists and explains the four functions of the skeleton with examples
• Names key bones and identifies which organs they protect (e.g. ribcage protects heart and lungs)
• Explains what bone marrow is and where blood cells are made

Plant Reproduction

Describe the structure of a flower and explain the processes of wind and insect pollination, fertilisation, seed and fruit formation, and seed dispersal in plants

• Labels the main parts of a flower (sepals, petals, stamens, carpel, ovary, ovule)
• Compares wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers and explains adaptations of each
• Traces the journey from pollination to seed dispersal

Calculating Dietary Energy

Calculate and evaluate energy intake and requirements in a healthy daily diet, interpreting food labels and nutritional data

• Reads and interprets a nutritional information label (kJ and kcal)
• Estimates daily energy requirements for a person of a given age/activity level
• Compares the energy content of different diets and identifies surpluses or deficits

Diet Imbalance & Deficiency

Explain the health consequences of an imbalanced diet including obesity (excess energy), starvation (severe energy deficit), and deficiency diseases (lack of specific nutrients, e.g. scurvy, rickets)

• Defines obesity, starvation, and deficiency disease and links each to dietary imbalance
• Identifies at least two specific deficiency diseases and the missing nutrient causing each
• Explains why the impact of poor diet can be long-term

Anaerobic Respiration

Explain anaerobic respiration in animals as the incomplete breakdown of glucose to lactic acid when oxygen is in short supply, causing muscle fatigue; contrast this with aerobic respiration in terms of energy yield and products

• Writes the word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals
• Explains why lactic acid causes muscle pain and fatigue
• Compares the energy released by aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Body Temperature Regulation

Explain how the human body detects and responds to environmental changes including temperature, including the role of the skin in temperature regulation (sweating, shivering, vasodilation, vasoconstriction)

• Explains what homeostasis means in the context of body temperature
• Describes at least two mechanisms the body uses to cool down and two to warm up
• Explains why maintaining a constant core body temperature is important for enzyme activity

Human Reproduction

Describe the structure and function of the male and female human reproductive systems, and explain the processes of fertilisation, gestation, and birth including the role of the placenta

• Labels diagrams of the male and female reproductive systems
• Explains the roles of gametes (sperm and egg) in sexual reproduction
• Describes what happens during fertilisation and where it occurs

Pathogens & the Immune System

Explain how pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and fungi) cause disease and describe how the immune system responds, including the roles of white blood cells (phagocytosis, antibody production) and the concept of immunity

• Distinguishes between bacteria, viruses, and fungi as pathogens with examples of each
• Explains two ways white blood cells destroy pathogens (engulfing and antibodies)
• Explains how vaccination works and why it prevents disease

Single-Celled Organisms

Explain how unicellular organisms such as bacteria and Amoeba carry out all the functions of life within a single cell

• Names examples of unicellular organisms
• Lists the seven life processes (MRS NERG) and explains how a single cell performs each one
• Contrasts how unicellular organisms meet their needs compared to multicellular organisms

Using a Microscope

Use a light microscope correctly to prepare, focus, and examine biological specimens, including making accurate labelled drawings at an appropriate magnification

• Sets up a light microscope safely and correctly (course focus then fine focus)
• Prepares a wet mount slide with a biological specimen (e.g. onion skin)
• Calculates the magnification of an image (magnification = image size ÷ actual size)

Finite Resources & Recycling

Explain that many raw materials (metals, fossil fuels, minerals) are finite resources, describe the environmental costs of extraction, and evaluate the benefits of recycling and the circular economy

• Identifies examples of finite natural resources and explains why they are finite
• Describes the environmental impact of mining and fossil fuel extraction
• Explains why recycling metals saves energy compared to extraction from ores

Earth's Atmosphere & CO2

Describe the composition of Earth's atmosphere (mainly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of CO₂ and other gases), explain how human activity increases CO₂, and describe the impact on global climate

• States the approximate percentages of nitrogen, oxygen, CO₂, and argon in the atmosphere
• Explains how burning fossil fuels and deforestation increase atmospheric CO₂
• Describes the greenhouse effect and how it leads to climate change

Acid Reactions & Salts

Describe and write word equations for the reactions of acids with metals, alkalis (neutralisation), and metal oxides/hydroxides, identifying the salt produced in each case

• Writes word equations for: acid + metal → salt + hydrogen; acid + alkali → salt + water; acid + metal oxide → salt + water
• Names the salt formed from a given acid and base (e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride)
• Describes the test for hydrogen gas (squeaky pop)

Reactions That Release or Absorb Heat

Distinguish between exothermic reactions (release energy, temperature rises) and endothermic reactions (absorb energy, temperature falls), with everyday and industrial examples

• Defines exothermic and endothermic in terms of energy transfer to and from the surroundings
• Gives two examples of each type from everyday life (e.g. combustion, hand warmers; photosynthesis, cold packs)
• Explains energy changes during changes of state (melting is endothermic, freezing is exothermic)

Acids, Alkalis & pH

Define acids and alkalis in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, describe the pH scale (0–14), and explain how indicators are used to identify and measure acidity or alkalinity

• States that acids have pH below 7, alkalis have pH above 7, and neutral is pH 7
• Explains what hydrogen ions (H⁺) have to do with acidity
• Names common indicators (litmus, universal indicator) and describes colour changes

The Rock Cycle

Explain the rock cycle: how igneous rocks form from magma, sedimentary rocks from compressed sediment, and metamorphic rocks from heat and pressure, and how all rock types can transform into one another over geological time

• Describes how each rock type (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) is formed
• Gives an example of each rock type and its formation (e.g. granite, limestone, marble)
• Traces a rock sample through possible transitions in the rock cycle

Types of Chemical Reaction

Identify and describe four types of chemical reaction: combustion (burning in oxygen), oxidation (gain of oxygen), thermal decomposition (breaking down by heat), and displacement (more reactive metal replaces less reactive one)

• Writes a word equation for each type of reaction with an example
• Identifies the type of reaction from a given word equation or description
• Explains what makes a displacement reaction happen (relative reactivity)

Physical vs Chemical Changes

Distinguish between physical changes (reversible, no new substances formed) and chemical changes (new substances formed, often irreversible), using conservation of mass to understand both types

• Classifies given changes as physical or chemical with justification
• Explains what conservation of mass means and why mass is conserved in chemical reactions
• Names observable signs that a chemical reaction has occurred (colour change, gas produced, temperature change, precipitate)

The Reactivity Series

Order common metals in the reactivity series and explain how a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive one; describe how carbon is used to extract metals from their oxides in industry

• Recalls the order of common metals in the reactivity series (potassium to gold)
• Predicts whether a displacement reaction will occur given two metals
• Explains why carbon can be used to extract iron from iron oxide but not aluminium from aluminium oxide

Separating Mixtures

Select and carry out appropriate separation techniques for different types of mixtures: filtration (insoluble solids), distillation (liquids by boiling point), crystallisation (dissolved solids), and chromatography (coloured substances)

• Selects the correct separation technique for a given mixture with justification
• Describes the steps of simple distillation and explains why it works
• Interprets a chromatography result (Rf values, number of components)

Pure Substances & Mixtures

Distinguish between pure substances and mixtures, identify formulations as useful mixtures with precise compositions, and use melting and boiling points to test for purity

• Explains why a pure substance has a sharp, fixed melting point but a mixture melts over a range
• Identifies common formulations (medicines, alloys, paints, fuels) as deliberate mixtures
• Explains what impurities do to melting and boiling points

The Particle Model

Use the particle model to explain the properties of solids, liquids, and gases — including differences in arrangement, movement, and spacing — and apply the model to explain density, compressibility, and the anomalous expansion of water

• Draws particle diagrams for solids, liquids, and gases showing correct arrangement and spacing
• Explains why gases are compressible but liquids and solids are not
• Explains why ice floats on water using the anomalous expansion of water

Atoms, Elements & Compounds

Explain the differences between atoms, elements, and compounds; describe the simple Bohr model of the atom (nucleus with protons and neutrons, electrons in shells); and write and interpret chemical symbols and simple formulae

• Defines atom, element, and compound and distinguishes between them with examples
• Draws a simple Bohr model of an atom labelling nucleus (protons/neutrons) and electron shells
• Reads a chemical formula to identify the elements and number of each atom (e.g. H₂O, CO₂, NaCl)

Metals vs Non-Metals

Compare the physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals, explaining metallic properties (malleability, lustre, conductivity) and how position in the periodic table predicts reactivity

• Lists physical properties typical of metals (shiny, malleable, good conductor) and non-metals
• Explains why metals are used in wires, cookware, and construction based on their properties
• Uses the periodic table to predict whether an element is likely to be reactive or unreactive

The Periodic Table

Describe the organisation of the periodic table into periods and groups, explain the contribution of Mendeleev, and use the table to identify metals, non-metals, and predict patterns in reactivity

• Explains why the periodic table is arranged into periods (rows) and groups (columns)
• States that elements in the same group have similar chemical properties
• Locates metals, non-metals, and metalloids in the periodic table

How Materials Change State

Explain melting, freezing, boiling, condensing, and sublimation using the particle model, interpreting heating and cooling curves to identify melting and boiling points

• Describes what happens to particles during each change of state
• Reads a heating/cooling curve and identifies the melting point and boiling point from the flat regions
• Explains why temperature stays constant during a change of state

Extinction & Rapid Change

Explain how environmental change can outpace a species' ability to adapt through natural selection, leading to extinction, using historical and contemporary examples

• Explains why extinction occurs when environmental change is faster than the rate of adaptation
• Gives a historical example (e.g. woolly mammoth, dodo) and a contemporary example of threatened extinction
• Distinguishes between background extinction rates and mass extinctions

The Carbon Cycle

Describe the carbon cycle, tracing carbon through photosynthesis, respiration, feeding, decomposition, and combustion, and explain the role of each process

• Draws or labels a diagram of the carbon cycle showing the main processes
• Explains how photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
• Explains how respiration, combustion, and decomposition return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere

How Natural Selection Works

Explain natural selection as the mechanism of evolution: heritable variation + competition for resources + differential survival and reproduction = change in allele frequency over generations

• Describes the four conditions required for natural selection to operate (variation, heritability, competition, selection)
• Applies the concept to a specific example (e.g. antibiotic resistance in bacteria, peppered moth)
• Explains why individuals with advantageous traits leave more offspring

Evidence for Evolution

Describe the main types of evidence for evolution: the fossil record (change over time), comparative anatomy (homologous structures), and the geographic distribution of related species

• Explains how fossils form and what they can tell us about past life
• Uses the fossil record as evidence that species have changed over time
• Describes homologous structures (e.g. pentadactyl limb) as evidence for common ancestry

Food Webs & Interdependence

Construct and interpret food webs showing the interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, explaining how a change in one population affects others

• Draws a food web from given data with arrows showing energy flow direction
• Predicts how the population of one species would change if another species increased or decreased
• Distinguishes a food web from a food chain and explains why webs are more realistic

Species Distribution & Change

Explain how environmental change (climate change, habitat loss, pollution) affects the distribution of species, including range shifts, local extinction, and invasive species

• Describes at least two ways environmental change can affect species distribution
• Gives a real example of a species whose range has shifted due to climate change
• Explains what an invasive species is and how environmental change can enable invasions

Pollination & Pollinator Decline

Explain the importance of insect pollination for plant reproduction and human food security, and discuss the consequences of pollinator decline

• Explains why many food crops depend on insect pollination to produce fruit and seeds
• Names examples of crops that require insect pollination (e.g. apples, almonds, oilseed rape)
• Discusses the potential impact of bee population decline on food production

Variation in Species

Explain variation within and between species, distinguishing between continuous variation (e.g. height) and discontinuous variation (e.g. blood group), and between genetic and environmental causes

• Gives examples of continuous and discontinuous variation in humans
• Distinguishes between genetic causes of variation (inherited differences) and environmental causes (diet, sunlight, etc.)
• Explains why sexual reproduction produces greater variation than asexual reproduction

Biodiversity & Resilience

Explain what biodiversity means, why high biodiversity makes ecosystems more resilient, and describe the ways human activity threatens biodiversity (habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species, climate change)

• Defines biodiversity at the species, genetic, and ecosystem levels
• Explains why high biodiversity makes an ecosystem more stable and resilient to disruption
• Identifies at least three human activities that reduce biodiversity

Energy Loss Between Levels

Explain how energy is transferred between trophic levels in a food chain, why energy is lost at each stage, and use pyramids of biomass/numbers to represent this

• Explains that only about 10% of energy passes from one trophic level to the next
• Constructs a pyramid of biomass from data and explains its shape
• Identifies where energy is lost at each trophic level (heat, movement, waste)

Toxins Building Up in Food Chains

Explain how organisms affect and are affected by their environment, including the bioaccumulation of toxic materials (e.g. pesticides, heavy metals) through food chains

• Defines bioaccumulation and explains why toxins increase in concentration higher up the food chain
• Gives a real example of bioaccumulation (e.g. DDT in peregrine falcons, mercury in tuna)
• Explains how organisms can change their habitat (e.g. earthworms aerating soil, beavers creating wetlands)

The Water Cycle

Describe the water cycle, tracing water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, surface runoff, and transpiration in plants, explaining how the sun drives the cycle

• Labels a water cycle diagram correctly
• Explains what drives each stage of the water cycle (e.g. solar energy drives evaporation)
• Explains the role of transpiration (plants releasing water vapour) in the water cycle

Chromosomes, Genes & DNA

Describe the relationship between chromosomes, genes, and DNA in heredity, including the double helix structure of DNA and the historical roles of Watson, Crick, Franklin, and Wilkins

• Explains the hierarchy: DNA → gene → chromosome → nucleus → cell
• Describes what a gene is and what it codes for
• States that human body cells contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs

Genetic Mutation

Explain genetic mutation as a random change in DNA sequence, describe causes of mutation (e.g. radiation, chemicals, copying errors), and explain that most mutations are neutral, some harmful, and a few beneficial

• Defines mutation as a change to DNA sequence
• Names at least two things that can cause mutations (mutagens)
• Explains that mutations are the original source of all genetic variation

Reading Distance-Time Graphs

Read and plot distance-time graphs for moving objects; interpret the gradient (steepness) of a line as speed; identify stationary periods (horizontal sections), constant speed (straight diagonal lines), and relative speeds by comparing gradients; calculate average speed from the gradient of a straight-line segment using speed = distance ÷ time

• Read a distance-time graph and describe what is happening at each stage — moving, stopped, returning
• Calculate speed from the gradient of a straight section of a distance-time graph
• Sketch a distance-time graph from a written description of a journey with stops and speed changes

Relative Motion

Explain relative motion — how the apparent speed and direction of an object depends on the observer's own motion — using everyday examples such as trains and cars passing

• Explains why a train moving at the same speed in the same direction as another appears stationary to passengers on that train
• Calculates relative speed when two objects move towards or away from each other
• Explains why the frame of reference matters when describing motion

Speed & Distance-Time Graphs

Calculate average speed using the equation speed = distance ÷ time, represent journeys on distance-time graphs, and interpret gradient as speed and flat sections as stationary periods

• Uses speed = distance ÷ time to calculate average speed with correct units (m/s, km/h)
• Draws a distance-time graph for a given journey with correct axes and labels
• Reads a distance-time graph to determine speed, stopping points, and direction of travel

Drawing Force Diagrams

Draw and interpret force diagrams showing forces as labelled arrows — where the arrow's length represents the force's magnitude and its direction shows which way the force acts; show multiple forces on one object; identify from the diagram whether forces are balanced (equal arrows in opposite directions, no resultant) or unbalanced (arrows of different sizes, producing a resultant); represent the resultant with a single arrow

• Draw a force diagram with labelled arrows showing direction and relative size for at least two forces acting on an object
• Use their diagram to explain whether forces are balanced or unbalanced and what will happen to the object
• Add a resultant force arrow to a diagram and explain how they calculated it

Electromagnets

Describe the magnetic effect of an electric current (a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field), and investigate how the strength of an electromagnet depends on current, number of coil turns, and core material

• Describes that a current-carrying wire produces a circular magnetic field
• Lists three factors that affect electromagnet strength: current size, number of coil turns, and core material
• Explains why an electromagnet can be switched on and off, unlike a permanent magnet

Mass vs Weight

Distinguish between mass (amount of matter, measured in kg) and weight (gravitational force, measured in N), use the equation weight = mass × gravitational field strength, and explain why g differs on other planets and stars

• Explains the difference between mass and weight with correct units for each
• Calculates weight using W = mg with g = 10 N/kg on Earth
• Predicts what would happen to an object's weight on the Moon or Jupiter

Investigating Forces

Plan and carry out investigations into forces, including measuring force with a newton meter, investigating Hooke's Law, and collecting and interpreting motion data to test Newton's laws

• Uses a newton meter correctly to measure forces in newtons
• Sets up and conducts a Hooke's Law investigation, recording force and extension and plotting a graph
• Identifies and controls variables in a force investigation

Resultant Forces

Describe forces as vector quantities with both magnitude and direction, distinguish between balanced forces (zero resultant, no change in motion) and unbalanced forces (non-zero resultant, causes acceleration or deceleration)

• Explains what a vector quantity is and why force is a vector
• Calculates the resultant force when two forces act in the same or opposite directions on an object
• Explains what happens to an object's motion when forces are balanced vs unbalanced

Newton's First & Second Laws

State and apply Newton's First Law (an object stays at rest or constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force) and Second Law (force = mass × acceleration), including the relationship between mass, force, and acceleration

• States Newton's First Law and gives a real example (e.g. why a moving spacecraft doesn't need engines in space)
• Uses F = ma to calculate force, mass, or acceleration given the other two quantities
• Explains why a heavier object requires more force to achieve the same acceleration

Newton's Third Law

State and apply Newton's Third Law: every force has an equal and opposite reaction force acting on a different object, distinguishing action-reaction pairs from balanced forces

• States Newton's Third Law correctly, identifying both the action and reaction force and the objects they act on
• Gives at least two real-world examples (e.g. rocket propulsion, swimmer pushing off a wall)
• Distinguishes a Newton's Third Law pair from balanced forces on the same object

Moments, Pressure & Hooke's Law

Calculate the turning effect (moment = force × perpendicular distance), explain how pressure is transmitted equally in liquids (Pascal's principle) and the concept of atmospheric pressure, and describe Hooke's Law (extension ∝ force up to the elastic limit)

• Calculates the moment of a force and uses the principle of moments to solve lever problems
• Explains why hydraulic systems can multiply force (pressure transmitted equally)
• States Hooke's Law and plots force-extension graphs identifying the elastic limit

Magnetic Fields

Describe magnetic poles (north and south), explain attraction and repulsion between poles, describe magnetic field lines plotted using a compass, and explain the Earth's magnetic field and its practical uses

• States the rule for attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles
• Draws the magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet from memory or compass readings
• Explains why a compass needle points north

Deformation & Fluid Pressure

Explain forces associated with deforming objects (elastic and inelastic deformation), thermal expansion and contraction of materials, and how fluid pressure acts in all directions and increases with depth

• Distinguishes elastic deformation (returns to shape) from inelastic/plastic deformation (permanently changed)
• Explains why bridges and railway tracks have expansion gaps
• Explains why pressure increases with depth in a liquid (e.g. why deep-sea divers need pressure suits)

Renewable vs non-renewable energy

Distinguish between renewable energy resources (solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal, biomass) and non-renewable resources (coal, oil, gas, nuclear), comparing their advantages, disadvantages, and environmental impacts

• Lists at least four renewable and three non-renewable energy resources
• Explains what makes a resource renewable or non-renewable
• Compares the environmental impact of at least two different energy sources (e.g. wind vs coal)

Efficiency, Sankey diagrams, and work done

Calculate energy efficiency as the ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, construct and interpret Sankey diagrams, and calculate work done using work = force × distance

• Calculates efficiency as a percentage from given input and useful output energy values
• Draws a Sankey diagram to represent energy transfers in a device, with arrow widths proportional to energy amounts
• Uses W = Fd to calculate work done when a force moves through a distance

Heating experiments and Q = mcΔT

Plan and carry out experiments to measure energy transferred during heating, including using the equation Q = mcΔT, recording temperature changes over time, and evaluating sources of error

• Uses a thermometer and stopwatch to record temperature change over time in a heating experiment
• Applies Q = mcΔT to calculate the energy transferred to a substance being heated
• Identifies sources of energy loss in a heating experiment (e.g. heat to surroundings) and suggests improvements

Conduction, convection, and radiation

Describe and compare the three mechanisms of heat transfer — conduction (particle vibration through solids), convection (fluid movement in liquids/gases), and radiation (infrared waves) — and explain that the rate of transfer depends on temperature difference

• Explains the particle-level mechanism for conduction and why metals are good conductors
• Describes a convection current using particle theory and gives a real-world example
• Explains that all objects emit and absorb infrared radiation and how surface colour affects this

Energy stores and transfers

Identify the main energy stores (kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal, chemical, nuclear, electromagnetic) and the pathways by which energy is transferred between stores (mechanically, electrically, by heating, by radiation)

• Names and describes at least five energy stores with a real-world example of each
• Identifies the energy stores at the start and end of a given process (e.g. a falling ball, a burning match)
• Describes the transfer pathway connecting two energy stores in a given scenario

Energy can't be created or destroyed

Explain the principle of conservation of energy (energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores), and describe how energy is dissipated as thermal energy to the surroundings in all real processes

• States the law of conservation of energy
• Explains why the total energy in a closed system is always the same even though it changes form
• Explains what dissipation means and why it happens in real machines (friction, air resistance)

Power: watts and energy per second

Define power as the rate of energy transfer (power = energy ÷ time, measured in watts), and compare energy transfer rates in different everyday contexts

• States the definition of power and gives its unit (watt)
• Uses P = E/t to calculate power, energy, or time given the other two quantities
• Compares the power ratings of common appliances and explains what the rating means

Current, voltage, and what they measure

Understand that electric current is the rate of flow of charge (measured in amperes using an ammeter), and that potential difference (voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge (measured in volts using a voltmeter)

• States that current is measured in amperes (A) and is the rate at which charge flows around a circuit
• States that potential difference (voltage) is measured in volts (V) and represents energy transferred per unit charge
• Correctly connects an ammeter in series and a voltmeter in parallel when building or interpreting a circuit

Static electricity and sparks

Explain static electricity as the build-up of electric charge through friction, describe how charged objects attract or repel each other, and relate static discharge to everyday phenomena such as lightning

• Explains that rubbing transfers electrons from one material to another, creating opposite charges
• States that like charges repel and unlike charges attract
• Links the concept of static discharge to the formation of lightning as a large-scale electric spark

Ohm's Law: voltage, current, resistance

Apply Ohm's Law (V = IR) to calculate current, voltage, or resistance in a simple circuit, and explain that resistance opposes the flow of current

• States Ohm's Law as V = IR and identifies the units for each quantity
• Rearranges V = IR to find the unknown value given the other two
• Explains that resistance opposes current flow and identifies factors that affect resistance (material, length, thickness)

Series vs parallel circuits

Describe and apply the rules for current, voltage, and resistance in series and parallel circuits, and explain the practical uses of each circuit type

• States the rules for current and voltage in series circuits (current same everywhere; voltages add up)
• States the rules for current and voltage in parallel circuits (voltages same across each branch; currents add up)
• Explains why household wiring uses parallel circuits and identifies the advantage of each type

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Describe the full electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays, in order of increasing frequency and energy; explain that all EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum; and describe the uses and hazards of different regions

• Lists the seven regions of the EM spectrum in order of increasing frequency
• States that all EM waves travel at 3 × 10⁸ m/s in a vacuum
• Gives at least one use and one hazard for each region of the spectrum

Waves & Different Materials

Explain how waves can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected by different materials, and apply these interactions to explain colour perception, sight, communication technologies, and the effects of different surfaces on wave behaviour

• Explains the difference between absorption, transmission, and reflection of waves
• Uses the three interactions to explain how we see coloured objects
• Explains how radio waves, visible light, and infrared are used in different communication technologies

Reflection & Refraction

State the law of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) and explain refraction as the change in speed and direction when light crosses a boundary between two media; apply ray diagrams for plane mirrors and refracting surfaces

• States the law of reflection and applies it to draw a reflected ray correctly
• Draws a ray diagram for a plane mirror showing a virtual image
• Explains why a pencil looks bent in a glass of water using refraction

White Light & Colour

Explain that white light is a mixture of all visible colours (ROYGBIV), describe dispersion through a prism, explain why objects appear coloured (selective reflection and absorption of wavelengths), and describe colour mixing with filters

• Lists the colours of the visible spectrum in order of increasing frequency
• Explains why a prism disperses white light into a spectrum
• Explains why a red object looks red under white light but black under blue light

Ray Diagrams & Images

Construct ray diagrams to show the formation of images by plane mirrors and converging lenses, identifying whether images are real or virtual, magnified or diminished, upright or inverted

• Draws an accurate ray diagram for a plane mirror showing a virtual, upright, same-size image
• Draws a ray diagram for a converging lens to show image formation
• Uses a ray diagram to determine whether the image is real or virtual and which side of the lens it forms

Drawing Ray Diagrams

Draw ray diagrams to show reflection at a plane mirror (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) and refraction at a boundary between media; use ray diagrams to locate images and explain how lenses and mirrors work

• Draw a ray diagram for a plane mirror showing the incident ray, normal, reflected ray, and virtual image
• Draw a ray diagram showing a ray bending towards the normal when passing from air into glass
• Use a ray diagram to locate the image formed by a convex lens and describe whether it is real or virtual

Wave Properties & Types

Describe waves in terms of amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and wave speed; distinguish transverse waves (oscillation perpendicular to direction of travel) from longitudinal waves (oscillation parallel); and use the wave equation v = fλ

• Labels a wave diagram with amplitude, wavelength, crest, and trough
• Distinguishes transverse and longitudinal waves and gives an example of each
• Uses v = fλ to calculate wave speed, frequency, or wavelength given the other two

How Sound Waves Travel

Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and travels as a longitudinal pressure wave through solids, liquids, and gases; describe reflection of sound (echoes) and absorption; explain why sound cannot travel through a vacuum

• Explains how a vibrating object creates regions of compression and rarefaction in air
• Explains why sound travels fastest in solids and cannot travel in a vacuum
• Describes how an echo is produced and gives a practical application (sonar, ultrasound)

Galaxies and the universe

Describe the scale of the universe, including the structure of galaxies, the position of the Sun in the Milky Way, and the use of light years as a unit of distance, and appreciate why space exploration requires enormous timescales

• Defines a light year as the distance light travels in one year
• Describes the structure of a galaxy and states that the Sun is a star in the Milky Way galaxy
• Compares the distances within the solar system with the distances between stars and between galaxies, expressing them in appropriate units

Universal Gravitation

Describe gravity as a universal attractive force between all masses, explain that orbital motion arises because gravity provides the centripetal force keeping objects in orbit, and compare gravitational field strengths on different planets

• States that gravity is a universal attractive force acting between all objects with mass
• Explains that orbital motion occurs because gravity continuously deflects the path of the orbiting object
• Compares gravitational field strength on different planets and explains how this affects weight

Why We Have Seasons

Explain that the seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth's axis during its orbit around the Sun, distinguishing this from the common misconception that seasons are caused by changing distance from the Sun

• Explains that Earth's axis is tilted at about 23.5° relative to its orbit
• Describes how the tilted axis causes one hemisphere to receive more direct sunlight in summer and less in winter
• Refutes the misconception that distance from the Sun causes seasons by noting Earth is actually slightly closer to the Sun in January

Phases of the Moon

Explain the phases of the Moon as the changing angle of sunlight on the lunar surface as seen from Earth, and describe how solar and lunar eclipses occur

• Explains that the phases of the Moon arise from the changing geometry of Sun, Earth, and Moon, not Earth's shadow
• Describes the sequence of Moon phases over approximately 28 days
• Distinguishes between a solar eclipse (Moon between Sun and Earth) and a lunar eclipse (Earth between Sun and Moon)

The solar system (age 11+)

Describe the detailed structure of the solar system, including moons, asteroids, and comets, compare orbital periods and distances of the planets, and distinguish between planets, dwarf planets, and other bodies

• Names the eight planets in order and gives one distinguishing fact about each
• Describes the difference between a planet, a dwarf planet, an asteroid, and a comet
• Explains the relationship between distance from the Sun and orbital period (planets further out take longer)

The Biodiversity Crisis

Quantify the current biodiversity crisis: extinction rates 100-1000x the background rate; explain methods for measuring biodiversity loss (species-area relationship, population viability analysis, IUCN Red List categories); evaluate rewilding case studies — Yellowstone wolf reintroduction triggering a trophic cascade that changed river courses; Iberian lynx recovery; describe minimum viable population theory and conservation triage; examine ethical debates in deciding which species to prioritise

Sexual Selection

Explain sexual selection as a form of natural selection: runaway selection for peacock tails, bird of paradise displays, and frog calls; explain kin selection and altruistic behaviour — why worker bees die to protect the hive, why meerkats stand guard at personal risk (Hamilton's rule, inclusive fitness); introduce game theory in animal behaviour using the hawk-dove model; define cognitive ethology and survey evidence for animal emotions, play, and culture

The Red Queen Hypothesis

Introduce the Red Queen hypothesis — species must keep evolving just to maintain fitness relative to co-evolving partners; describe predator-prey arms races (cheetah speed vs gazelle speed, bat echolocation vs moth hearing jamming) and parasite-host co-evolution (myxomatosis in rabbits); explain Darwin's hawk moth and orchid as a classic example of mutualistic co-evolution predicting an unknown species; understand that co-evolution is a major driver of biological diversification

Deep-Sea Survival

Explain how deep-sea animals cope with crushing pressure (no gas-filled spaces, flexible proteins, pressure-adapted enzymes); describe thermoregulation extremes — antifreeze glycoproteins in Antarctic fish, supercooling in wood frogs; introduce tardigrades and cryptobiosis (surviving desiccation, extreme temperatures, radiation, vacuum); survey other extremophiles (thermophiles at hydrothermal vents, halophiles in salt flats); consider what these organisms tell us about the limits of life

Reconstructing Ancient Ecosystems

Reconstruct an ancient ecosystem using multiple independent lines of evidence: isotope analysis of teeth to infer diet and migration, bone histology (growth rings) to estimate age and growth rate, coprolite chemistry for diet, and palaeobotany for habitat — understanding that palaeontology is an evidence-synthesis discipline

• Explains how stable oxygen isotope ratios in teeth shift with geographic location, allowing detection of seasonal migration
• Explains how annual growth rings in bone cross-sections reveal growth rate and approximate age at death
• Describes how combining evidence from teeth isotopes, coprolites, and fossil plant assemblages builds a richer picture of ancient ecology than any single source alone

Mass Extinctions in Earth History

Compare the five major mass extinction events in Earth history (End-Ordovician, Late Devonian, End-Permian, End-Triassic, K-Pg), describe proposed kill mechanisms for each (glaciation, oceanic anoxia, volcanic mega-eruptions, asteroid impact), and explain why mass extinctions, while catastrophic, also open ecological space for subsequent evolutionary radiations

• Names all five major mass extinctions in chronological order with approximate dates
• Describes the End-Permian extinction as the most severe and links it to the Siberian Traps volcanic eruption and its atmospheric consequences
• Explains how each mass extinction was followed by an adaptive radiation — e.g. the K-Pg extinction removing non-avian dinosaurs allowed mammals to diversify and eventually produce humans

Dinosaur-to-Bird Transition

Trace the evidence for the dinosaur-to-bird transition in depth: feathered theropods from the Liaoning Formation (China), the mix of dinosaur and bird features in Archaeopteryx, and the competing ground-up versus trees-down hypotheses for the origin of flight

• Describes at least three specific feathered theropod fossils (e.g. Microraptor, Anchiornis, Sinosauropteryx) and what each tells us
• Describes Archaeopteryx as showing a mix of bird features (feathers, wishbone) and dinosaur features (teeth, clawed wings, long bony tail)
• Outlines the ground-up (running and leaping) and trees-down (gliding from trees) hypotheses for flight origin and the evidence supporting each

Radiometric Dating

Explain how radiometric dating works — radioactive isotopes decay at a known rate (half-life), so measuring the ratio of parent to daughter isotope in a rock or fossil gives an absolute age; distinguish between carbon-14 (useful up to ~50,000 years) and uranium-lead (useful for millions to billions of years)

• Defines half-life as the time for half the radioactive parent isotope to decay to the daughter isotope
• Explains that the parent:daughter ratio in a sample gives an estimate of absolute age
• Distinguishes carbon-14 (for recent organic material) from uranium-lead or potassium-argon (for deep geological time), explaining why carbon-14 cannot be used for dinosaur bones

Coral Bleaching & Acidification

Explain the mutualistic symbiosis between coral polyps and photosynthetic zooxanthellae; describe how heat stress causes bleaching (corals expel zooxanthellae and turn white); explain ocean acidification chemistry: CO2 dissolves in seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering pH and dissolving calcium carbonate skeletons; connect reef loss to the collapse of habitat for ~25% of marine species; evaluate current reef restoration efforts

Ocean Currents and Global Heat

Explain thermohaline circulation (the global conveyor belt) as driven by temperature and salinity differences that cause dense water to sink; describe how the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) transfers heat from the tropics toward Europe; explain that oceans absorb more than 90% of excess heat and ~25% of CO2 from human emissions; explore what would happen to Northern European climates if circulation weakened

Predator Loss and Ecosystem Effects

Quantify energy transfer efficiency through trophic levels (~10% rule); explain trophic cascades: how removing an apex predator triggers a chain of ecosystem changes (sea otters → sea urchin explosion → kelp forest collapse); define 'fishing down the food web'; evaluate evidence for ocean rewilding — shark reintroduction, whale recovery driving nutrient cycling; understand why ecosystem-based fisheries management is needed

Deep-Sea Life Without Sunlight

Contrast photosynthesis (energy from sunlight) with chemosynthesis (energy from oxidising chemicals like hydrogen sulphide); describe hydrothermal vent communities: chemoautotrophic bacteria form the base of a food web supporting tube worms, giant clams, and vent crabs with no sunlight; explore what deep-sea life tells us about the origin of life on Earth; explain why NASA studies ocean vents as analogues for potential life around hydrothermal activity on Europa and Enceladus

Drawing conclusions from evidence (age 12+)

Identify patterns and trends in data, draw conclusions that directly address the hypothesis with quantitative reference to evidence, and evaluate the investigation by distinguishing between systematic and random errors and proposing targeted improvements

• Identifies the pattern or trend in a graph or data table using specific values
• Writes a conclusion that references the hypothesis, states whether the prediction was supported, and quotes numerical evidence
• Distinguishes between a systematic error (affects all readings in the same direction) and a random error, and proposes a specific procedural improvement to address each

Controlling variables (age 11+)

Form a testable scientific hypothesis linking an independent variable to a predicted outcome, plan a full investigation identifying independent, dependent, and control variables, sample size, and risk assessment

• Writes a hypothesis in the form 'I predict that [IV] will affect [DV] because...' supported by scientific reasoning
• Identifies and labels the independent variable, dependent variable, and at least three control variables
• Plans repeat readings and an appropriate sample size, and identifies relevant hazards with control measures

Tables, charts, and graphs

Construct data tables with correct headings and SI units, plot appropriate graph types (bar chart, line graph, scatter graph), draw a line of best fit, and calculate the gradient of a straight-line graph

• Constructs a table with column headings that include quantity and unit (e.g. Mass / g)
• Selects the appropriate graph type for the data and plots it accurately with labelled axes and scales
• Draws a line of best fit for linear data and correctly calculates its gradient using two points

Repeated tests for reliability

Distinguish between precision (consistency of repeated readings) and accuracy (closeness to true value), use significant figures and standard form correctly, and choose and use appropriate measuring instruments to minimise uncertainty

• Explains the distinction between precision and accuracy with examples
• Rounds measurements to an appropriate number of significant figures
• Selects a measuring instrument with appropriate resolution for the context (e.g. choosing a 10 ml measuring cylinder rather than a 1-litre measuring jug for a 5 ml measurement)

Orbital Mechanics

Apply Newton's laws to explain orbital motion: why orbit is continuously falling sideways rather than floating; how a gravity assist (slingshot manoeuvre) transfers momentum from a planet to a spacecraft; and why rockets need to reach a specific speed to enter orbit — with a conceptual (not algebraic) treatment of the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation

• Explains that orbit is a state of continuous freefall — the spacecraft is falling towards Earth but moving so fast horizontally that it keeps missing
• Describes how a gravity assist works: a spacecraft flying past a planet gains speed by 'borrowing' from the planet's orbital momentum
• Explains the key insight of the rocket equation: the ratio of fuel to final spacecraft mass grows exponentially with required Δv, explaining why large rockets are mostly fuel

Where Elements Come From

Explain stellar nucleosynthesis: the Big Bang produced mainly hydrogen and helium; main-sequence fusion builds elements up to iron; and supernovae produce elements heavier than iron and scatter them into space — meaning the atoms in our bodies were forged in ancient stars

• States that the Big Bang produced primarily hydrogen and helium, and that all heavier elements were made later in stars
• Explains that nuclear fusion in main-sequence stars converts hydrogen to helium and can continue building heavier elements up to iron
• Explains why elements heavier than iron require supernova explosions to form, and describes how supernovae distribute these elements into interstellar space where they become the raw material for new stars, planets, and life

Finding Exoplanets

Describe how astronomers detect planets around other stars using transit photometry (dip in starlight as a planet crosses) and radial velocity (Doppler wobble of the star), explain the habitable zone concept, and discuss what atmospheric biosignatures — such as oxygen, methane, and water vapour detected together — would suggest about a planet

• Explains transit photometry: the small, periodic dip in a star's brightness when a planet passes in front of it
• Explains the habitable zone as the range of distances from a star where liquid water could exist on a planet's surface
• Describes two or more atmospheric biosignatures and explains why their co-presence is significant (e.g. oxygen + methane together suggests active life replenishing both)

Observing with Light Waves

Explain how the electromagnetic spectrum is the primary tool of modern astronomy — different wavelengths (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma-ray) reveal different phenomena, why some telescopes must be in space, and what specific discoveries each wavelength range has enabled (e.g. CMB in microwave, black hole jets in X-ray, cold gas clouds in radio)

• Lists at least four regions of the EM spectrum and gives a specific astronomical object or phenomenon observed in each
• Explains why some telescopes must be placed in space (Earth's atmosphere blocks X-ray, gamma-ray, and much infrared radiation)
• Describes the James Webb Space Telescope or Hubble and explains which part of the spectrum each primarily observes and why that was chosen

How the Body Stays in Balance

Explain homeostasis as the process of maintaining a stable internal environment; describe the main feedback loop systems (negative feedback) using blood glucose regulation (insulin/glucagon) and body temperature as concrete examples; and connect the endocrine system (hormone-secreting glands) to the nervous system as two complementary communication systems with different speeds and durations

• Defines homeostasis and explains why maintaining a stable internal environment is essential for survival
• Describes the blood glucose negative feedback loop: glucose rises → pancreas releases insulin → cells take up glucose → glucose falls → insulin release stops
• Compares the nervous system (fast, electrical, short-duration signals) with the endocrine system (slower, chemical, longer-duration signals) and gives an example where each is more appropriate

Neurons & Brain Structure

Explain how neurons transmit signals as electrochemical impulses across synapses, describe how the brain is organised (lobes and functions, limbic system for emotion), and explain neuroplasticity — why learning and practice physically change brain structure — connecting to optical illusions as evidence that the brain constructs reality rather than passively recording it

• Describes the neuron-to-neuron signal pathway: electrical impulse travels along axon, neurotransmitter crosses the synapse, new impulse begins in the next neuron
• Names the four lobes of the cerebral cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital) and gives one function for each
• Explains neuroplasticity: repeated neural pathways become stronger and faster — this is the biological mechanism of learning and skill development

Immunity & Vaccines

Distinguish innate (non-specific, immediate) from adaptive (specific, memory-forming) immunity; explain how B cells produce antibodies that recognise specific antigens, how T cells destroy infected cells, and why immunological memory makes vaccines work; and describe the gut microbiome as a community of trillions of microbes that significantly influences immune function

• Distinguishes innate immunity (rapid, non-specific barriers and inflammation) from adaptive immunity (slow, specific, memory-forming)
• Explains how B cells produce antibodies that bind to specific antigens on pathogens, targeting them for destruction
• Explains immunological memory: after first exposure, memory B and T cells remain, making subsequent response faster and stronger — the basis of vaccine protection

DNA & Genes

Describe the double helix structure of DNA (base pairs, complementarity), explain how genes are sections of DNA that code for proteins, introduce the central dogma (DNA → mRNA → protein) conceptually, and discuss the ethical implications of CRISPR gene editing — including potential benefits (genetic disease treatment) and concerns (germline editing, 'designer babies')

• Describes DNA as a double helix with four bases (A, T, C, G) where A pairs with T and C pairs with G
• Explains that a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein, and that proteins carry out most of the body's functions
• Describes CRISPR as a molecular tool that can cut and edit DNA sequences, and raises at least two distinct ethical considerations about its use in humans

Supervolcanoes & Volcanic Winter

Describe calderas such as Yellowstone and Toba as supervolcanoes capable of erupting thousands of cubic kilometres of ash; explain how sulphur dioxide aerosols in the stratosphere scatter sunlight and cause volcanic winter; discuss the Toba catastrophe theory and how giant eruptions have interacted with ice ages; contrast supervolcano eruptions with ordinary eruptions in scale and climate impact

Hazard Assessment & Evacuation

Explain probabilistic hazard assessment using eruption recurrence intervals and fault slip rates; describe how volcano observatories monitor ground deformation, gas emissions, and seismicity to issue alert levels; explore why communities remain near active hazards (fertile volcanic soil, poverty, cultural ties); discuss the ethics and politics of evacuation decisions and the social justice dimensions of disaster risk

How Tectonic Plates Move

Understand that convection currents in the molten mantle drive the movement of rigid tectonic plates; distinguish between convergent (collision/subduction), divergent (spreading ridges), and transform (sliding) plate boundaries; explain why volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain chains cluster at boundaries; introduce the Wilson cycle of supercontinent assembly and breakup

Seismic Waves & Earth's Interior

Distinguish between P-waves (compression, travel through solids and liquids) and S-waves (shear, cannot pass through liquids); explain why a seismic shadow zone exists on the far side of an earthquake; describe how seismologists use wave refraction and reflection to infer that Earth has a solid inner core, liquid outer core, mantle, and crust

Hurricanes, Tornadoes & Monsoons

Explain how hurricanes form and intensify over warm ocean water (latent heat release, low-pressure spiral); describe tornado formation within supercell thunderstorms; explain monsoon mechanics driven by temperature differences between land and sea; introduce attribution science — how scientists use climate models to calculate whether and by how much climate change increased the probability or intensity of a specific extreme weather event

Reading Ancient Climate Records

Explain how ice cores preserve ancient air bubbles, isotope ratios, and volcanic markers allowing reconstruction of temperature and CO2 going back 800,000 years; describe tree rings, ocean sediment cores, coral skeletons, and pollen records as additional climate proxies; explain how climate models are built and validated against the palaeoclimate record; describe the IPCC process of synthesising scientific evidence across thousands of studies to produce consensus assessments

Global Wind Patterns

Explain that unequal solar heating drives large-scale atmospheric circulation: Hadley cells (0-30°), Ferrel cells (30-60°), and polar cells (60-90°) produce the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies; describe how the Coriolis effect from Earth's rotation deflects winds rightward in the Northern Hemisphere; explain the jet stream as a fast high-altitude wind that steers weather systems; connect jet stream waviness and Arctic amplification to prolonged extreme weather

Greenhouse Gas Science

Describe the electromagnetic spectrum and distinguish between short-wave solar radiation and long-wave infrared radiation emitted by Earth; explain how greenhouse gas molecules (CO2, CH4, N2O, H2O) absorb and re-emit infrared through molecular vibration while O2 and N2 do not; distinguish the natural greenhouse effect (which makes Earth habitable) from the enhanced greenhouse effect driven by human emissions; evaluate the relative potency of different greenhouse gases